Mangroves are trees A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to 6 m; some authors set a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter and shrubs A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs that grow in saline Saline water is a general term for water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved salts . The concentration is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) of salt coastal habitats in the tropics The tropics is a region of the Earth by the Equator. It is limited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23°26' (23.5°) S. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone) and subtropics The subtropics are the geographical and climatical zone of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S. The term "subtropical" describes the climatic region found adjacent to the tropics, usually between 20 and 40 – mainly between latitudes Latitude, usually denoted by the Greek letter phi gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body) north or south of the equator. Lines of Latitude are the imaginary horizontal lines shown running east-to-west (or west to east) on maps (particularly so in the Mercator projection) that run either north or south of the equator 25° N and 25° S. The saline conditions tolerated by various species range from brackish water Brackish water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. The word comes from the Middle Dutch root "brak," meaning "salten" or "salty". Certain human activities can, through pure seawater Seawater is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5%. This means that every kilogram, or every litre, of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts (mostly, but not entirely, the ions of sodium chloride: Na+, Cl−). The average density of seawater at the ocean surface is 1.025 (30 to 40 ppt Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, and bicarbonates. Salinity in Australian English and North American English may also refer to the salt content of soil), to water of over twice the salinity of ocean seawater, where the salt becomes concentrated by evaporation Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid, that occurs only on the surface of a liquid. The other type of vaporization is boiling, that instead occurs on the entire mass of the liquid. Evaporation is also part of the water cycle (up to 90 ppt).[1][2]

There are many species of trees and shrubs adapted to saline conditions. Not all are closely related, and the term "mangrove" may be used for all of them, or more narrowly only for the mangrove family What does and does not belong to each family is determined by a taxonomist. Similarly for the question if a particular family should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing a family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just for mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.

Mangroves form a characteristic saline woodland Ecologically, a woodland is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher densities and or shrubland Shrubland, scrubland, scrub or brush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity. It may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time, or a transitional community habitat, called mangrove swamp, mangrove forest, mangrove or mangal.[3] Mangals are found in depositional In geology, sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical, chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and, therefore, the rock types that will be formed after lithification, if the sediment is preserved in the rock record. In most cases the environments associated coastal environments where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high energy wave action. They occur both in estuaries An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea and along open coastlines. Mangroves dominate three quarters of tropical coastlines.[2]

Contents

Ecology

Biomes Biome are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined by factors such as plant structures , leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and
Terrestrial biomes
Tundra In physical geography, tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr "uplands," "treeless mountain tract." There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra
Taiga, Boreal forests Taiga , also known as the boreal forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests. Covering most of inland Canada, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway, much of Russia (especially Siberia), as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States (northern Minnesota, Michigan's Upper Peninsula, northern Wisconsin, Upstate New
Montane grasslands and shrublands Montane grasslands and shrublands is a biome defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The biome includes high altitude grasslands and shrublands around the world
Temperate coniferous forests The temperate coniferous forest includes areas such as the Valdivian temperate rain forests of southwestern South America, the rain forests of New Zealand and Tasmania, northwest Europe , southern Japan, and the eastern Black Sea-Caspian Sea region of Turkey and Georgia to northern Iran
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests are a forest biome. They are located in regions of semi-humid climate at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Most tropical and subtropical coniferous forest ecoregions are found in the Nearctic and Neotropic ecozones, from Mexico to Nicaragua and on the Greater Antilles, Bahamas, and Bermuda. Other
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome. The typical structure of these forests include four layers. The upper most layer is the canopy which is composed of tall mature trees ranging from 100 to 200 feet high. Below the canopy is the three-layered, shade tolerant understory which is roughly about 30 to 50 feet shorter
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub is a temperate biome, characterized by dry summers and mild and rainy winters. Summers are typically hot in low-lying inland locations but can be cool near some seas, as near San Francisco, which have a sea of cool waters
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests , also known as tropical moist forests, are a tropical and subtropical forest biome
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome, also known as tropical dry forest, is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive several hundred centimeters of rain per year, they have long dry seasons which last several months and vary with geographic
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands is a biome whose predominant vegetation consists of grasses and/or shrubs. The climate is temperate and semi-arid to semi-humid
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands are a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. Grasslands are dominated by grass and other herbaceous plants. Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees. Shrublands are dominated by woody or herbaceous shrubs
Deserts and xeric shrublands Deserts and xeric shrublands is a biome characterized by, relating to, or requiring only a small amount of moisture
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Riparian A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a stream. Plant communities along the river margins are called riparian vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic plants. Riparian zones are significant in ecology, environmental management, and civil engineering because of their role in soil conservation, their biodiversity, and
Wetland A wetland is an area of land which soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can be saltwater, freshwater, or brackish. The world's largest wetland is the
Aquatic biomes
Pond A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy
Littoral The littoral zone refers to that part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. In coastal environments the littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged. It always includes this intertidal zone and is often used to mean the same as the intertidal zone, Intertidal zone The intertidal zone is the area that is exposed to the air at low tide and underwater at high tide (for example, the area between tide marks). This area can include many different types of habitats, including steep rocky cliffs, sandy beaches, or wetlands (e.g., vast mudflats). The area can be a narrow strip, as in Pacific islands that have only a
Mangrove forest
Kelp forest Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds
Coral reef Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Corals are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters containing few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, and are formed by polyps that live together in groups. The polyps secrete a hard carbonate exoskeleton which provides support
Neritic zone The neritic zone, also called the sublittoral zone, is the part of the ocean extending from the low tide mark to the edge of the continental shelf, with a relatively shallow depth extending to about 200 meters . The neritic zone has generally well-oxygenated water, low water pressure, and relatively stable temperature and salinity levels. These,
Continental shelf The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain, and was part of the continent during the glacial periods, but is undersea during interglacial periods such as the current epoch by relatively shallow seas and gulfs
Pelagic zone Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore is in the pelagic zone. The word pelagic comes from the Greek πέλαγος or pélagos, which means "open sea." The pelagic zone can be thought of in terms of an imaginary cylinder or water column that goes from the surface of the sea almost to the bottom, as
Benthic zone The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this zone are called benthos. They generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom; many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom
Hydrothermal vents A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins, and hotspots
Cold seeps A cold seep is an area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs, often in the form of a brine pool. Cold seeps constitute a biome supporting several endemic species
Pack ice Drift ice is ice that floats on the surface of the water in cold regions, as opposed to fast ice, which is attached to a shore. Usually drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents, hence its name, "drift ice"
Other biomes
Endolithic zone An endolith is an organism that lives inside rock, coral, animal shells, or in the pores between mineral grains of a rock. Many are extremophiles; living in places previously thought inhospitable to life. They are of particular interest to astrobiologists, who theorize that endolithic environments on Mars and other planets constitute potential
This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Ecology or the Ecology Portal Welcome to the ecology portal. Ecology, or ecological science, is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the may be able to help recruit an expert. (February 2009)

Mangroves are found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The tides occur with a period of approximately 12 hours and 25 minutes, and with an amplitude that is influenced by the alignment of the sun and moon and the shape of the near-shore areas, and as such have a high degree of salinity. Areas where mangals occur include estuaries An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea and marine shorelines.[1]

Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat (the intertidal zone The intertidal zone is the area that is exposed to the air at low tide and underwater at high tide (for example, the area between tide marks). This area can include many different types of habitats, including steep rocky cliffs, sandy beaches, or wetlands (e.g., vast mudflats). The area can be a narrow strip, as in Pacific islands that have only a) by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments as dissolved oxygen becomes reduced in concentration to a point detrimental to aquatic organisms living in the system. Dissolved oxygen is typically expressed as a percentage of the oxygen that would dissolve in the water at the prevailing temperature and salinity (, high salinity Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, and bicarbonates. Salinity in Australian English and North American English may also refer to the salt content of soil and frequent tidal inundation A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not normally covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water,. About 110 species belong to the mangal.[1] Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.

Mangroves protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis.[4][5] The mangrove's massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave energy.[6] Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[7] In this way, mangroves build their own environment.[4] Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion that they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action Plans.[5]

However, mangroves' protective value is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow,[8] so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods.[6] Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events like storm surges and tsunamis.[9] Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accreting.[citation needed]

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine region for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottom as their home.[10] Mangrove crabs mulch the mangrove leaves, adding nutritients to the mangal muds for other bottom feeders.[11] In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans. Despite restoration efforts, developers and others have removed over half of the world's mangroves in recent times.

Biology

Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats.[3] Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal.[1] This is especially true in higher latitudes and in the Americas. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.[12]

Adaptations to low oxygen

A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal

Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered in lenticels. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to thirty centimeters, and in some species, over three meters. There are four types of pneumatophore—stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate oxygen transport within the plant.

Salt crystals formed on grey mangrove leaf

Limiting salt intake

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised, acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown that 90% to 97% of salt has been excluded at the roots. Salt which does accumulate in the shoot concentrates in old leaves which the plant then sheds. Red mangroves can also store salt in cell vacuoles. White (or grey) mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (hence their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss

Because of the limited freshwater availability in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water that they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, observed anecdotally that a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent tropical rainstorms.[13]

Nutrient uptake

The biggest problem that mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, there is little free oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which makes the soil much less nutritious and contributes to mangroves' pungent odor. Prop root systems allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. Red Mangrove) are viviparous, whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis. The mature propagule then drops into the water which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

Taxonomy

The following listing (modified from Tomlinson, 1986) gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family.

Major components

Family Genus, number of species Common name
Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae (family allocation disputed) Avicennia, 9 Black mangrove
Combretaceae Conocarpus, 1; Laguncularia, 11; Lumnitzera, 2 Buttonwood, White mangrove
Arecaceae Nypa, 1 Mangrove palm
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera, 6; Ceriops, 2; Kandelia, 1; Rhizophora, 8 Red mangrove
Lythraceae Sonneratia, 5 Mangrove apple

Minor components

Family Genus, number of species
Acanthaceae Acanthus, 1; Bravaisia, 2
Bombacaceae Camptostemon, 2
Cyperaceae Fimbristylis, 1
Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria, 2
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia, 6
Lythraceae Pemphis, 1
Meliaceae Xylocarpus, 2
Myrsinaceae Aegiceras, 2
Myrtaceae Osbornia, 1
Pellicieraceae Pelliciera, 1
Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis, 2
Pteridaceae Acrostichum, 3
Rubiaceae Scyphiphora, 1
Sterculiaceae Heritiera, 3

Geographical regions

Mangroves occur in numerous areas worldwide. See List of mangrove ecoregions.

Africa

Mangrove near the town of Cienaga, Magdalena, in the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta swampy marshes A cluster of mangroves on the banks of the Vellikeel River in Kannur District of Kerala, India Mangroves in Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary of Kerala, India The green tunnel of mangrove in Sihcao, Tainan, Taiwan A mangrove of the genus Sonneratia, showing abundant pneumatophores growing on the landward margin of the reef flat on Yap Bombay/ Mumbai and Navi Mumbai have a lot of mangroves since the city's creation from pieces of land on the Arabian sea coast The mangroves survive the heat of the city of Bombay/ Mumbai and Navi Mumbai

There are important mangrove swamps in Kenya and Madagascar, with the latter even admixing at the coastal verge with dry deciduous forests.

Nigeria has Africa's largest mangrove concentration, spanning 36,000 km2. Oil spills and leaks have destroyed many in the last fifty years, damaging the local fishing economy and water quality.[14]

Along the coast of the Red Sea both on the Egyptian side and in the Gulf of Aqaba, mangroves composed primarily of Avicennia marina and Rhyzophora mucronata in about 28 stands cover about 525 hectares.[citation needed] Almost all Egyption mangrove stands are now protected.[citation needed]

Americas

Mangroves live in many parts of the tropical and subtropical coastal zones of North, South and Central America.

Continental United States

Because of their sensitivity to sub-freezing temperatures, mangroves in the continental United States are limited to the Florida peninsula (see Florida mangroves) and isolated growths[15] of Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) along the coast of southern Louisiana[16] and south Texas[17]

Central America & Caribbean

Mangroves occur on the west coast of Costa Rica, on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Panama and on many Caribbean Islands, such as Curaçao, Bonaire, Antigua, the Bahamas, Saint Kitts and Nevis and St. Lucia. Significant mangals include the Marismas Nacionales-San Blas mangroves in Mexico. Mangroves can also be found in Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados, and the Pacific coast of El Salvador.

South America

Brazil contains approximately 26,000 km2 of mangals, 15% of the world's total of 172,000 km2.

Ecuador and Peru have significant areas of mangroves mainly in the Gulf of Guayaquil-Tumbes mangroves.

Venezuela's northern Caribbean island, Margarita, possesses mangrove forests in the Parque Nacional la Restinga.

Colombia possesses large mangrove forests on both its Caribbean and Pacific coasts.

Asia

Indomalaya ecozone

Mangroves occur on Asia's south coast, throughout the Indian subcontinent, in all southeast Asian countries, and on islands in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and the Pacific.

The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers. The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India.

The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest near Chidambaram, South India, by the Bay of Bengal is the world's second largest mangrove forest. Notably, it has actually increased by 90% in size between 1986 and 2002.[citation needed]

Major mangals live on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.[18]

Other significant mangals include the Bhitarkanika Mangroves and Godavari-Krishna mangroves.

The mangal in the Ganges-Surma-Meghna River System delta was one of the largest in the world.[citation needed]

In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests: the Can Gio Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh mangrove forest in the Sea and Coastal Region of Kien Giang, Ca Mau and Bac Lieu province.

The mangrove forests of Kompong Sammaki in Cambodia are of major ecological and cultural importance, as the human population relies heavily on the crabs and fish that live in the roots.

The three most important mangrove forests of Taiwan are: Tamsui River in Taipei, Jhonggang River in Miaoli and the Sihcao Wetlands in Tainan. According to research, there are four existing types of mangrove in Taiwan.[citation needed] Some places have been developed as scenic areas, such as the log raft routes in Sihcao.

In the Indonesian Archipelago, mangroves occur around much of Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi and the surrounding islands. While further north they found along the coast of the Malay Peninsula.

Pakistan

Pakistani mangroves are located mainly on the Indus delta. Major mangrove forests are also found on the coastal line of provinces Sindh and Balochistan.

In Pakistan, the mangrove forest are located on the coasts of Sindh and Balochistan provinces. Pakistan's mangrove ecosystem is one of the largest found in an arid climate. Without realising their global significance, the local communities continue to use mangroves as fuelwood and fodder. In urban areas, mangroves are being cut away for developmental activities on the coast. Pakistan project include rehabilitation of mangrove-degraded areas at Sonmiani and Jiwani in Balochistan, and Sandspit in Karachi, Sindh. In Karachi, land reclamation projects are cutting down mangrove forests and filling then earth and selling them for commercial and urban development.

Middle East

Oman, near Muscat, supports large areas of mangroves, in particular at Shinas, Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as qurm, thus the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park. Mangroves are also present extensively in neighboring Yemen.[19]

Iranian mangrove forests occur between 25°11′N to 27°52′N. These forests exist in the north part of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, along three Maritime Provinces in the south of Iran. These provinces respectively from southwest to southeast of Iran, include Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan & Balouchestan.

Australasia

More than fifty species of Rhizophoraceae grow in Australasia[20] with particularly high biodiversity on the island of New Guinea and northern Australia.[20]

Australia has approximately 11,500 km2 of mangroves primarily on the northern and eastern coasts of the continent, with occurrences as far south as Millers Landing in Wilsons Promontory, Victoria[21] (38°54′S)[22] and Barker Inlet in Adelaide, South Australia.[23]

New Zealand also has mangrove forests extending to around 38°S (similar to Australia's southernmost mangrove incidence): the furthest geographical extent on the west coast is Raglan Harbour (37°48′S); on the east coast, Ohiwa Harbour (near Opotiki) is the furthest south that mangroves are found (38°00′S).[24]

Pacific islands

Twenty-five species of mangrove are found on various Pacific islands, with extensive mangals on some islands. Mangals on Guam, Palau, Kosrae and Yap have been badly affected by development.[25]

Mangroves are not native to Hawaii, but the Red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, and Oriental mangrove, Bruguiera sexangula, have been introduced and are now naturalized.[26] Both species are classified as pests by the University of Hawaii Botany Department.[27]

Cultivating mangroves

Red mangroves are the most common choice, used particularly in marine aquariums in a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water. Mangroves also appear in home aquariums, and as ornamental plants, such as in Japan.

Exploitation and conservation

The United Nations Environment Program estimated that shrimp farming causes a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests.[28]

Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as the benefits of mangroves become more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay. In Trinidad and Tobago as well, efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steelmill and a port.[29] In Thailand, community management has been effective in restoring damaged mangroves.[30]

Approximately 35% of mangrove area was lost during the last several decades of the twentieth century (in countries for which sufficient data exist, which encompass about half of the area of mangroves).[31]

It has been cited that Mangroves can help buffer against Tsunami, cyclones, and other storms. One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from Tsunami destruction - the villagers in Naluvedapathy planted 80,244 saplings in order to get into the Guinness Book of World Records. This created a kilometre wide belt of trees of various varieties. When the Tsunami struck, much of the land around the village was flooded, but the village itself suffered minimal damage.[32][33]

In popular media

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d Mangal (Mangrove). World Vegetation. Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden, University of California at Los Angeles
  2. ^ a b Morphological and Physiological Adaptations: Florida mangrove website
  3. ^ a b Hogarth, Peter J. (1999). The Biology of Mangroves Oxford University Press, Oxford.
  4. ^ a b Mazda, Y.; Kobashi, D. and Okada, S. (2005) "Tidal-Scale Hydrodynamics within Mangrove Swamps" Wetlands Ecology and Management 13(6): pp. 647-655
  5. ^ a b Danielsen, F. et al. (2005) "The Asian tsunami: a protective role for coastal vegetation" Science 310: p. 643.
  6. ^ a b Massel, S. R.; Furukawa, K.and Brinkman R. M. (1999) "Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests" Fluid Dynamics Research 24(4): pp. 219–249
  7. ^ Mazda, Yoshihiro et al. (1997) "Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps" Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1: pp. 193–199
  8. ^ Baird, Andrew (26 December 2006) "False Hopes and Natural Disasters" New York Times editorial
  9. ^ Dahdouh-Guebas, F. et al. (2005) "How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami?" Current Biology 15(12): pp. 443–447
  10. ^ Encarta Encyclopedia 2005. Article — Seashore, by Heidi Nepf.
  11. ^ Skov, Martin W. and Hartnoll, Richard G. (March 2002). Paradoxical selective feeding on a low-nutrient diet: why do mangrove crabs eat leaves? Oecologia 131(1): pp. 1–7.
  12. ^ UN Report on mangrove diversity
  13. ^ Calfo, Anthony (2006). Mangroves for the Marine Aquarium.
  14. ^ O'Neill.T (February 2007). "Curse of the Black Gold". National Geographic: 88 to 117.
  15. ^ "Modeling Hurricane Effects on Mangrove Ecosystems" U.S. Geological Survey, USGS FS-095-97, June 1997
  16. ^ "Coastal Mangrove-Marsh Shrubland" (PDF). Conservation Habitats & Species Assessments. Louisiana Department of Wildlife & Fisheries. December 2005. http://www.wlf.state.la.us/pdfs/experience/Coastal%20Mangrove-Marsh%20Shrubland.pdf.
  17. ^ Yang, Chenghai; Everitt, James; Fletcher, Reginald; Jensen, Ryan;Mausel, Paul (2008-03-15). "Mapping Black Mangrove Along the South Texas Gulf Coast Using AISA+ Hyperspectral Imagery". Biennial Workshop on Aerial Photography, Videography, and High Resolution Digital Imagery for Resource Assessment Proceedings (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing). http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=213366.
  18. ^ Mangroves of India - URL retrieved November 26, 2006
  19. ^ Rouphael, Tony ;Turak, Emre and Brodie, Jon (1992) "Chapter 3: Seagrasses and Mangroves of Yemen's Red Sea" In DouAbal, A. et al. (editors) (1992) Protection of Marine Ecosystems of the Red Sea Coast of Yemen Global Environment Facility, United Nations Development Programme, New York, pp. 41-49
  20. ^ a b Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2007) The world's mangroves, 1980-2005: a thematic study in the framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 (FAO forestry paper #153(FAO) Rome,page 37, ISBN 978-92-5-105856-5
  21. ^ "Millers Landing". Victorian Resources Online:West Gippsland. Department of Primary Industries.. http://www.ga.gov.au/bin/gazd01?rec=248996. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  22. ^ "Millers Landing". Geoscience Australia Place Names Search. Australian Government. http://www.ga.gov.au/bin/gazd01?rec=248996. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  23. ^ Zann, Leon P. (1996) [1995]. "Mangrove ecosystems in Australia: structure, function and status". State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia. Australian Government, Dept of Environment and Heritage. ISBN. ISBN 0-642-17399-0. http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/somer/annex1/mangrove.html. Retrieved 2006-11-25.
  24. ^ Mangroves and Seagrasses - Treasures of the Sea
  25. ^ Hawaii and the Pacific Islands
  26. ^ Allen, James A. and Krauss, Ken W. (2006) "Influence of Propagule Flotation Longevity and Light Availability on Establishment of Introduced Mangrove Species in Hawai'i". Pacific Science 60:3, July 2006. Abstract at [1] - URL retrieved November 28, 2006.
  27. ^ Hawaiian Alien Plant Studies - URL retrieved November 28, 2006.
  28. ^ Botkin, D. and E. Keller (2003) Enrivonmental Science: Earth as a living planet (p.2) John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-38914-5
  29. ^ http://www.thepetitionsite.com/petition/957999809
  30. ^ http://ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/thailand-mangrove-restoration-community-management.html
  31. ^ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis (p.2) Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute ISBN 1-59726-040-1
  32. ^ Tree News, Spring/Summer 2005,Publisher Felix Press
  33. ^ Mangrove India website

See also

References

External links

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Terrestrial biomes
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests · Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests · Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests · Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests · Temperate coniferous forests · Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub · Boreal forests/taiga · Mangrove · Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands · Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands · Flooded grasslands and savannas · Montane grasslands and shrublands · Deserts and xeric shrublands · Tundra
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Pakistan Christian TV More saline-tolerant species of mangroves should be planted, and there should be a strict control on the removal of mangrove trees. ...
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Explore the twists and turns of Kilim river through the maze created by . mangrove. trees. Observe the bizarre land walking fish, vividly colored kingfishers, eagles and often otters and dolphins. Out of the . mangroves. limestone formations ...

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Mangrove species in Queensland Australia?
Q. can anyone tell me two common species of mangroves that are found along the coast of Queensland, Australia? i need to research them and write a biology assignment on them which disscusses how they have adapted to living in such a harsh environment. i know how to write the report and everything. i just cant choose two mangrove species! Help!
Asked by no name - Fri Jun 13 21:06:12 2008 - - 2 Answers - 0 Comments

A. hi, haha, do u go to uranagn high? me too, how did u do on ya exam?? did u find it hard? its funny as soon as i saw this in google search i was like no way... lol
Answered by Jamie - Sun Jun 15 22:07:25 2008

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